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• 4.1: Explore Water Issues
• 4.2: Boundary Waters Treaty Brainbusters

A Model for Cooperation

While conflicts arise when countries share water, the Boundary Waters Treaty helps Canada and the United States find their common interests. Some notable examples are provided below.

1909: St. Mary and Milk Rivers

When farmers in Montana dug a canal to divert water from the St. Mary River to the Milk River, farmers in Alberta started a canal to divert the water back. The Boundary Waters Treaty settled the dispute by apportioning the combined flow from the two rivers equally between the countries. The IJC then developed an apportionment regime to carry out the Treaty provisions. In 2004, the IJC led a new round of consultations with basin residents on recent concerns about apportionment procedures.

1912: Pollution of Boundary Waters

By the early 1900s, the discharge of sewage and manufacturing wastes led to outbreaks of cholera and other serious problems. An IJC investigation, requested by the two federal governments, included the largest survey of bacterial pollution ever conducted. The IJC's findings helped communities safeguard drinking water supplies and prompted other actions. Eventually, the two federal governments initiated sustained action to meet their Treaty commitment not to pollute the waters to the extent of injuring health or property in the other country.

1928: Trail Smelter

Photo credit: Library and Archives Canada

Sulfur dioxide fumes from a smelter in Trail, British Columbia were severe enough to cause damage in the State of Washington. The IJC recommended remedial measures and a formula for payments to cover the damages. The case set the precedent in international law that a country is responsible for the environmental damage it causes to another country.

1944: Columbia River

A major study by the IJC set the stage for the coordinated development of water resources in the Columbia River basin. Principles recommended by the IJC for sharing flood control and electric power benefits also helped the two federal governments negotiate the 1961 Columbia River Treaty. Developing and operating the dams in a coordinated manner produced greater benefits for both countries.

1952: Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River

Flooding near Montreal

A major hydroelectric power project in the St. Lawrence River approved by the IJC controls the outflow from Lake Ontario. The IJC set the flows to reduce flooding to shoreline communities, improve commercial shipping and generate electricity. Fifty years later, the IJC is reviewing whether the flow regime should be updated to reduce environmental impacts and achieve other objectives.

1972: Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement

Photo credit: Library and Archives Canada

The IJC conducted a scientific study that helped officials in both countries agree on actions they would take to clean up the Great Lakes and meet their Treaty commitment regarding pollution. Substantial improvements resulted from building sewage treatment plants and reducing industrial discharges. Scientists working together on both sides of the border found other problems that led to a new agreement in 1978 and subsequent amendments. Currently, government officials are reviewing the terms of the agreement for the first time in more than 20 years.

1975: Garrison Diversion

Canadians objected to an irrigation project in North Dakota because they were concerned that the transfer of water from the Missouri River basin could introduce new fish, parasites and diseases to the detriment of fishing in the Hudson Bay basin. The IJC recommended against building the portions of the project that could affect water flowing into Canada until the risk of transferring organisms could be eliminated or the two countries agreed that it was no longer a concern.

1984: Skagit River

Ross Dam in 1956

Many citizens objected to a proposal by the Seattle City Light Company to increase the height of Ross Dam because it would flood more than 2,000 hectares of a prime recreational area in British Columbia. The IJC brought Seattle and British Columbia officials together to negotiate an agreement. Often referred to as a "paper dam," the agreement gave Seattle access to power from British Columbia at costs similar to the financing for the High Ross Dam. It also included environmental enhancements in the Skagit River valley.

1985: Flathead River

U.S. citizens objected to a proposed mountaintop-removal coal mine in British Columbia  because they were concerned it could pollute the Flathead River and decimate the trout fishery. After studies and public consultation, the IJC recommended that the mine not be approved until potential impacts on the fishery were eliminated and both sides found the other risks to be acceptable.

1999: Great Lakes Water Uses

A proposal to ship Lake Superior water to Asia by tanker ignited a political firestorm throughout the Great Lakes basin. The IJC recommended policies to protect the lakes from increased consumption of water inside the basin as well as removals from the basin. These recommendations encouraged action by the Great Lakes states and provinces and helped them develop effective policies.